Grammar

ならない is more formal and objective; いけない is more personal. Both express obligation. The casual contractions are なくちゃ and なきゃ.

Casual contractions of なくてはいけない. なくちゃ and なきゃ are very common in everyday speech. The いけない/ならない at the end is often dropped entirely.

Prohibition. はいけない is standard, はだめ is casual, はなりません is formal. ちゃいけない and じゃいけない are common casual contractions.

Slightly more casual than なければならない. The shortened form ないと is very common in everyday speech — the いけない is often dropped.

More formal than なくてはいけない but same meaning. ならない is more objective/rule-based; いけない is more personal obligation. Common in written and formal contexts.

Expresses moral obligation or strong recommendation. Stronger than ほうがいい. すべき is an irregular contraction of するべき and is equally correct and common.

The reason for the prohibition is social obligation, common sense, or circumstance — not a rule. The double negative form (ないわけにはいかない) means 'cannot not do' = must do.

The double negative of わけにはいかない. Because circumstances make it impossible to not do something, you effectively must do it. The nuance is social or moral compulsion.

Stronger and more formal than てはいけない. Often used for moral, legal, or universal prohibitions. Common in written rules, laws, and formal declarations.

Similar to てはいられない but adds ばかり to emphasize that doing only this one thing is the problem. Slightly softer — you can still do the action, just not exclusively.

Urgency-driven inability to continue a current state. External circumstances are forcing a change of action. Contrast with ずにはいられない which is about an uncontrollable inner urge.

Expresses that something goes against common sense, morality, or social norms. Softer than てはいけない — more of a gentle rebuke or moral guidance than a firm prohibition. もんじゃない is the casual contraction.

Refutes a general assumption — 'just because A doesn't mean B'. Slightly stronger and more formal than わけではない. Often follows a conditional clause like 〜ばいい or 〜ければいい.

Classical/literary form of なければならない. Rarely used in conversation — mostly appears in writing, speeches, or formal declarations. する → せねばならない is the irregular form.

Expresses inevitability — the speaker is compelled by circumstances. More formal and stronger than しかない. ざる is the classical negative form; する → せざる is irregular.

Expresses an uncontrollable urge or emotion. ずにはいられない is slightly more literary; ないではいられない is slightly more casual. Both are natural at N2 level.

The negative form てはいけない means the opposite — it is not okay to / must not.

Using the た-form (past) sounds more urgent or decisive. The negative form is 〜ないほうがいい — you'd better not do.

Expresses lack of obligation — the opposite of なければならない. Do not confuse with てはいけない (must not), which is a prohibition.

Both forms are suggestions. 〜たらどう is slightly more casual and direct. Adding ですか makes either form more polite.

When said about someone else it expresses a wish or hope. When said about yourself it can also function as a soft suggestion meaning 'you should'.

Expresses an automatic or natural consequence — B always follows A. Cannot be used when B is a request, command, or volitional action. The result must be inevitable or habitual.

Focuses on a condition that, if satisfied, leads to a result. Often used for hypotheticals or advice. 〜ばよかった (I wish I had) is a very common fixed expression.

The most versatile conditional. Can express sequential events (after A, B), hypotheticals, and suggestions. Unlike と, the result can be a request or volitional action.

Assumes or takes as given that the condition is already true or known. Often used when responding to something the listener just said. The condition in なら often comes from context rather than being purely hypothetical.

Expresses that the result in B holds regardless of the condition in A. 何〜ても (no matter how/what/who) is a very common pattern built on this form.

More formal and objective than たら or なら. Often used in instructions, rules, and formal writing. The focus is on a specific scenario or case.

Expresses a single sufficient condition — if this one thing is satisfied, everything else follows. Often implies that this one thing is all that's needed or lacking.

Used for hypothetical reasoning — 'if we take A as true, then B follows'. More analytical in tone than たら or なら. とすると can also express a realization: 'if that's the case, then it means...'.

Concedes a hypothetical condition but asserts the result regardless. Similar to ても but adds a nuance of deliberate assumption.

Gives a subjective reason or personal justification. More casual than ので. The reason comes before から, the result after.

More formal and objective than から. Preferred in business and polite speech. The reason feels like a natural consequence rather than a personal excuse.

Two distinct uses depending on verb form: dictionary form expresses purpose (in order to), while plain past form expresses cause (because of). Noun + のために can be either.

Almost always used for positive outcomes. Using it sarcastically for a negative result is possible but rare. Contrast with せいで which is always negative.

Always implies a negative outcome and often assigns blame. Contrast with おかげで which is always positive.

The result or statement comes first, then なぜなら introduces the explanation. Almost always ends with からだ or からです. More formal and written than から or ので.

Used to draw a conclusion or name something based on observable evidence or a known fact. More formal and written than から or ので.

Provides a reason often in a self-justifying or apologetic tone. The speaker is explaining an unavoidable situation. Similar to から but carries a stronger nuance of excuse or emotional explanation.

Used to refute or caution against an assumption. The result B typically contains a negative or contrary outcome despite the reason in A.

Softly introduces a reason or background consideration as a basis for a suggestion or light conclusion. Less direct than から or ので — the result is often an invitation or gentle advice.

Used to predict or explain behavior based on deep knowledge of a person's character. The speaker is essentially saying 'that's just how they are.'

Based on direct visual evidence — the speaker is observing something right now. よさそう (looks good) and なさそう (doesn't seem to have) are irregular forms. Do not confuse with そうだ（伝聞）which reports hearsay.

Reports information received from an external source. The speaker has not personally verified it. Uses the plain form (not the stem like 様態そうだ) — this distinction is critical.

Based on indirect evidence, general knowledge, or hearsay — the speaker has not directly observed it. Noun + らしい also means 'typical of / befitting'. Softer certainty than にちがいない.

Based on the speaker's own direct observation and reasoning. More formal than みたいだ. Compare with らしい (indirect/hearsay) and そうだ（様態）(pure visual impression).

Casual equivalent of ようだ. Also used as a comparison particle meaning 'like' (noun + みたいな + noun). Very common in everyday speech.

Expresses uncertainty — the speaker thinks something is possible but is not confident. Roughly 50/50 certainty or less. Weaker than はずだ or にちがいない.

Focuses specifically on visual appearance — what can be seen from the outside. Contrast with ようだ which is a broader inference from multiple kinds of evidence.

Expresses an indirect or resultant purpose — the action is taken to achieve a state, not directly. Compare with ために which expresses direct purpose with a volitional verb.

Based on logical expectation, prior knowledge, or an official plan. はずがない is the negative form meaning 'there's no way'. Contrast with にちがいない which is based on reasoning from evidence.

Casual spoken equivalent of そうだ（伝聞）. Used when passing on information heard from someone else. んだって is more common than だって alone for hearsay. だって also has a separate meaning of 'because / even' in other contexts.

The speaker is highly confident in their conclusion — stronger than はずだ. Based on reasoning from evidence. Cannot be used for plans or official decisions (use はずだ for those).

Strong logical impossibility based on what the speaker knows. Compare with わけがない which is more emotional and emphatic.

Casual and colloquial. Can describe appearance, personality, or tendency. Often slightly negative in nuance — implying something is excessively or undesirably like something. Conjugates as an い-adjective.

Expresses a negative tendency or habitual pattern. Compare with やすい (easy to / tends to — more neutral) and 気味 (slight sign of).

Expresses a slight or early sign of something. Softer than がちだ — more about showing initial symptoms than a deep-rooted habit.

Negative form of 〜そうだ（様態）. そうもない is slightly more emphatic than そうにない. Both express that something is unlikely based on current observation.

まるで intensifies the comparison — 'exactly like, completely as if'. かのようだ is used when comparing to a hypothetical or contrary-to-fact situation.

Stronger and more emotional than にちがいない. The speaker considers the conclusion completely obvious. Often carries an exasperated or emphatic tone — 'obviously', 'of course'.

Describes what is visible from the outside — the impression of an emotion rather than a confirmed inner state. Becomes a な-adjective when modifying nouns (悲しげな顔).

けど is the most casual, けれど is slightly more formal, けれども is the most formal. All are interchangeable in meaning. Also commonly used as a softener at the end of a sentence to leave things unsaid — e.g. いいんですけど… (it's fine, but…).

Expresses disappointment, frustration, or surprise at an unexpected outcome. The speaker feels the result is unfair or contrary to expectations. Compare with が and けど which are more neutral.

Expresses regret that something was or wasn't done in the past. The negative form (なければよかった) expresses regret about something that was done. Similar to たらよかった but ばよかった has a slightly stronger sense of regret.

Combines the conditional ば with the disappointment marker のに to express a contrary-to-fact regret. Often implies mild blame or exasperation toward someone. Stronger emotional tone than ばよかった alone.

Marks a sharp contrast where the result in B is completely unexpected given A. Stronger than でも or しかし. Always introduces a surprising or disappointing turn.

Expresses criticism or irritation — the speaker finds A and B incompatible and blames the subject. Much stronger than のに. Not appropriate in formal contexts.

Expresses that the result is surprising — more or less than what A would lead you to expect. Neutral in tone, unlike くせに which is critical.

たとえ intensifies ても — 'even if, hypothetically'. The condition is presented as an extreme or unlikely scenario. Similar to ても alone but stronger and more emphatic, often used in resolute or dramatic statements.

Acknowledges that A is true but immediately introduces a limitation or qualification in B. The verb or adjective is repeated for emphasis. Conveys 'yes, but only to a certain extent'.

Two uses: substitution (A instead of B) and trade-off (A in exchange for B). The trade-off use implies compensation — one thing is given up in return for another.

Two distinct uses: simultaneous action (A while B — both by the same subject) and concession (although A, B). Adding も makes the concessive meaning clearer.

Negates a general assumption or stereotype. Often paired with からといって (just because) or 必ずしも (not necessarily). Softer than 〜わけではない.

Corrects or refines a description — 'A isn't quite right, B is more accurate'. Often used to soften or qualify what was just said.

Concedes a condition but asserts the following point regardless. にしても〜にしても (whether A or B) lists two options to say the result is the same either way.

Multiple uses: directed action (toward/against), contrast (in contrast to), and response (in response to). に対する is the prenominal form used to modify a noun.

Presents the opposite perspective or a reversal of the expected result. More casual and conversational than かえって.

Expresses willingness to endure or do something undesirable in order to achieve a goal. The て-form describes the sacrifice; the result after でも is the goal.

Concedes a statement but immediately limits or qualifies it — 'I say X, but don't take it at face value'. Used to prevent misunderstanding or exaggeration.

Expresses that the result is surprising given the standard set by the condition — either better or worse than expected. Similar to わりに but にしては is more about judging against an established standard.

More formal than のに or ても. Used when A strongly suggests B should not happen, but B happens anyway. Common in written reports, news, and formal speech.

Lists two contrasting possibilities and asserts the result is the same regardless of which applies. Similar to 〜であれ〜であれ but slightly more conversational.

Marks a result that is the opposite of what was intended or expected. Often implies irony — an action meant to improve things made them worse.

Presents two contrasting aspects of the same subject. Both sides are usually equal or inherent qualities — not unexpected outcomes. More formal than が or けど.

Acknowledges the first clause but introduces a contrasting or limiting second clause. More formal than が or けど. The result in B is often less than expected given A.

Concedes the first point but introduces a qualification or contrasting truth. More formal than でも or だけど. Common in written Japanese and formal speech.

Two nuances: limiting (only, just) and extent (as much as). できるだけ (as much as possible) and 〜だけでなく (not only) are very common fixed expressions.

Used for physical/time endpoints (until, up to) and degree (even, to the extent of). までに means 'by' a deadline — different from まで which means 'until'.

Refers to a degree or extent already established in context — 'that much' points back to something mentioned. こんなに (this much) and あんなに (that much over there) follow the same ko-so-a-do pattern.

Expresses that something is done exclusively or excessively. Often carries a negative or critical nuance. Distinct from たばかり (just did) and てばかりいる (keep doing nothing but).

Always paired with a negative verb — the combination creates a positive meaning of 'only'. Compare with だけ which can be used with positive verbs. 〜するしかない (no choice but to do) is a very common pattern.

も after a quantity expresses that the amount is surprisingly large. The speaker considers the number more than expected. Contrast with しか which expresses surprisingly small quantity.

〜ほど expresses degree or extent. すればするほど (the more ~ the more) is a very productive pattern — verb in conditional ば + same verb in dictionary form + ほど.

Compares two things and states that one does not reach the level of the other. 思ったほど〜ない (not as ~ as expected) is a very common pattern. Distinct from the ほど entry covering 'to the extent that'.

ぐらい is a softer phonetic variant of くらい — both are equally correct. Used for approximate quantities, comparisons of degree, or expressing a minimum expectation.

Combines だけ and しか for extra emphasis on the limitation. More emphatic than either alone. Always followed by a negative verb.

Both mean 'not at all'. ちっとも is more casual and emotional — used when expressing frustration or emphasis. 少しも is slightly more neutral.

Two main uses: 'even' (emphasizing an unexpected or extreme example) and 'if only / as long as' (with さえ〜ば). Do not confuse with も which also means 'even' but is less emphatic.

Minimizes or downplays the significance of something. Similar to だけ but carries a dismissive or humble nuance — 'it's only this, nothing more.'

Expresses that reality is even further from expectation than stated. Often used with a second clause that is more extreme. Compare with どころではない (no time for) which expresses inability due to circumstances.

Describes an action or state that results from an excess of emotion or intensity. The result is typically unintended or beyond the speaker's control.

Stronger and more emphatic than あまり. Expresses that something exceeds a reasonable or expected limit. Often followed by て showing a result.

Formal written equivalent of だけ. Used in official notices, signs, and formal text. Rarely used in everyday speech.

という identifies or names something. って is the casual spoken equivalent. Also used to quote what someone said or to introduce a definition.

Turns a clause into a noun phrase. Often used to restate or interpret what something means. ということは is a common pattern meaning 'which means that' or 'so you're saying'.

Introduces a rephrasing or summary of what was just said. Often used to confirm understanding or clarify a complex point in simpler terms.

Can express hearsay (I heard that) or logical conclusion (which means that). More certain than そうだ when used for hearsay.

Expresses a logical conclusion based on known facts — 'that explains it' or 'no wonder'. The speaker is connecting new information to what they already know.

Used to partially deny or soften a statement — 'not completely true' or 'not necessarily'. Often used to correct a misunderstanding without a strong denial.

Expresses strong disbelief or logical impossibility. Stronger than はずがない. The speaker finds the idea completely unthinkable.

Introduces a definition, explanation, or elaboration of the preceding phrase. Similar to とは but more conversational. Often followed by ことだ or からだ.

Used to assert something as a general truth or natural way of things. というものがある has a slightly softer, more evaluative nuance — 'there's something to be said about that.'

Used to correct, rephrase, or soften what was just said. Often signals the speaker is searching for a more accurate or careful wording. Can also start a sentence to redirect the conversation.

Introduces a topic by using something just mentioned as a trigger. Often brings up an association or asks what is meant by a term. Similar to といえば but というと is slightly more neutral and questioning.

Strong assertion that something is exactly and only what is stated — no other explanation. More emphatic and literary than だけだ or しかない.

Adds a second point to reinforce the first. Both elements are typically of the same nature (both positive or both negative). More natural at sentence boundaries than 上に.

Casual additive conjunction. Less formal than その上. Often used in spoken conversation to pile on additional reasons or facts.

Expands scope beyond a single item. Often followed by も to introduce the additional element. Similar to ばかりでなく but slightly more formal.

ばかりか is more emphatic — it introduces a second element that is even more surprising than the first. Similar to だけでなく but slightly more colloquial.

The first item (はもちろん) is treated as obvious or given. The focus is on the additional item introduced after. Similar to はもとより but slightly more conversational.

Presents two qualities or items that both apply. Often used to describe something well-rounded or to acknowledge both sides of something. The ば form here is conditional but the overall pattern functions as a listing structure.

Two uses: expressing that something is the best option (nothing beats ~), or that something is restricted to a certain group. Contrast with に限らず which means 'not limited to'.

States that something applies universally without restriction. 有無を問わず (regardless of whether there is or not) and 男女を問わず (regardless of gender) are common fixed expressions.

Explicitly states that something is not restricted to the mentioned category. Contrast with に限る which means 'nothing beats' or 'limited to'.

Adds a second quality or condition to an already stated one. Both elements are usually of the same nature (both positive or both negative).

Similar to を問わず but slightly more formal. にかかわらず can also follow a verb clause (するかしないかにかかわらず), while を問わず typically follows nouns.

Expresses that someone proceeds with an action while ignoring or disregarding a factor that would normally matter. Often implies inconsiderate or uninhibited behavior.

抜きにして is more emphatic and often used to set something aside deliberately. なしに is more neutral. 冗談抜きに (seriously, no joke) is a very common fixed expression.

Both bracket or set aside a topic to focus on something else. はさておき is slightly more formal. はともかくとして is an extended form used in formal writing.

Often carries an ironic or emphatic nuance — 'of all things/people/times'. The speaker is either defending someone or noting an unfortunate pattern.

Expresses a condition or scope. 〜かぎりでは (within the limits of) is common in formal speech. The negative form (〜ないかぎり) means 'unless'.

Excludes the mentioned item from consideration. 以外に means 'in addition to / other than' (not limited to exclusion), while 以外は means 'except for'.

More formal and written than はもちろん. The first item is presented as obviously included, and the second extends scope even further.

Formal written equivalent of だけでなく. Common in academic papers, news articles, and formal speeches. Rarely used in everyday conversation.

Context determines nuance — completion (I got it done) vs regret (I shouldn't have). ちゃう／じゃう are casual contractions used in everyday speech.

Focuses on the recency of a completed action. Do not confuse with 〜てばかりいる which expresses repeated/ongoing behaviour.

Implies criticism or dissatisfaction — the person is doing one thing to the exclusion of everything else they should be doing.

More neutral and formal than あげく. Common in written reports and formal speech.

Both imply a continuous trend, usually in a negative direction. 一方だ is slightly more formal and often used in news or formal writing.

Implies a long, often difficult process leading to a conclusion. Can be used for both positive and negative outcomes, unlike あげく which tends to be negative.

Almost always used for negative or disappointing outcomes. Contrast with 末に which is neutral and can be positive.

Implies a long, often difficult process leading to a conclusion. Can be used for both positive and negative outcomes — contrast with あげく which almost always ends negatively.

Expresses regret about something that was planned or intended but never done. The ず is the classical negative form equivalent to ない.

Conjugates as an い-adjective. Can express both ease of use and a tendency toward something.

にくい focuses on physical or practical difficulty. づらい carries a stronger emotional or psychological difficulty nuance — things that are hard to bring yourself to do.

きる emphasizes full completion to the end. きれない is more commonly used and expresses that the action is impossible to complete fully.

かいがない (no worth) or かいもなく (despite the effort) are used for disappointing outcomes where the effort was ultimately unrewarded.

Stronger and more formal than にくい. Often used for things that are emotionally or intellectually impossible to accept, not just physically difficult.

Used for polite refusal in formal and business contexts — softer than できない or しない. Do not confuse with かねない which means the opposite: that something undesirable might happen.

Expresses that there is no method or means available, not just that it is difficult. Stronger than にくい.

Casual and emphatic. Expresses complete disbelief that something could happen. More colloquial than ようがない or はずがない.

Becomes a noun when combined with the verb stem. やりがい (sense of fulfillment from work) and 生きがい (reason for living) are very common fixed expressions.

Direct change in quality or identity. Compare with ようになる which is gradual change in ability or habit, and てくる which describes change approaching the present.

The speaker intentionally causes a change. にする also functions as 'I'll have / I'll go with' when ordering food or making choices.

Expresses a change or action that continues moving forward from the present into the future. Contrast with てくる which moves toward the present.

Expresses a change that has been happening up to the present, or a state that is approaching now. Contrast with ていく which moves away into the future.

Describes a gradual change in ability, habit, or state. Contrast with くなる/になる which describes a direct change in quality, and ことにする which is a deliberate decision.

Expresses ongoing conscious effort or a self-imposed rule. ようにしている (ongoing habit effort) is distinct from ようになる (gradual change that has already happened).

Describes an attempt or an action that is just about to begin. Often implies the action was interrupted or unsuccessful. Different from てみる which focuses on trying to see the result.

The decision comes from external circumstances or forces — not the speaker's own will. Contrast with ことにする where the speaker makes the decision themselves.

The speaker makes a conscious personal decision. ことにしている (habit/policy form) expresses an ongoing self-imposed rule. Contrast with ことになる where the decision is external.

Attaches directly to the verb stem. Emphasizes uninterrupted continuation of an action. Contrast with ていく which describes change progressing into the future.

始める is a planned or natural start. 出す implies a sudden or unexpected start — often used when something begins abruptly without warning.

Marks the completion of an action. Often used in sequence with another action that follows — 〜終わってから (after finishing ~).

The directional use of てくる/ていく — くる implies the action results in something arriving at or near the speaker, いく implies moving away. 持ってくる (bring) vs 持っていく (take) is the most common example.

につれて emphasizes parallel gradual change. にしたがって can also mean 'following / in accordance with' instructions or rules, not just parallel change.

Compound verb suffix expressing full completion of an action — doing something all the way to the end. Different from てあげる (doing something for someone). 書き上げる、仕上げる、作り上げる are common fixed expressions.

Expresses that an action was started but not completed, or is on the verge of happening. 〜かけの + noun means 'half-done ~'. 死にかける (to nearly die) and 倒れかける (to nearly fall) are common expressions using the 'on the verge of' nuance.

Presents two contrasting or simultaneous aspects. 一方だ (without で) means 'keeps going in one direction' — a completely different meaning, so the で is important.

Expresses flexible adaptation to varying conditions. に応じた (prenominal form) modifies a following noun. Similar to によって but に応じて implies active adjustment.

Two uses: simultaneous occurrence (at the same time as) and dual identity (both A and B). More literary than にともなって.

Used for changes that occur together with a major social, economic, or natural development. More formal than につれて and often used in written/academic contexts.

Always uses the dictionary form regardless of the tense of the main clause. Compare with てから which expresses 'after doing'.

The action in てから must be completed before the next action begins. Compare with たあとで which is similar but slightly more flexible about the time gap between actions.

The tense of the verb before とき matters: dictionary form (when about to do) vs た form (after completing). 出かけるとき (when leaving) vs 出かけたとき (after having left) have different timing.

Similar to てから but allows more time between the two actions. てから implies a tighter, more immediate sequence.

あいだ means the entire duration. あいだに means something happens at some point within that duration. Similar distinction to うちに.

Both actions are performed simultaneously by the same subject. The main action comes after ながら; the secondary action is in the ながら clause. Cannot be used when subjects differ.

The verb form completely changes the timing: dictionary form (about to), ている (in progress), た (just completed). This is one of the most tense-sensitive grammar points. See JLPT Sensei's related grammar section for more info.

Expresses spacing between occurrences. 三日おきに means every three days (with three-day gaps), not three times a day. Contrast with ごとに which emphasizes 'each/every' without the gap nuance.

Carries a sense of urgency — do B before the state in A changes. Compare with あいだに which is more neutral about timing. ないうちに (before ~ happens) is a common pattern.

Two uses: たきり expresses that after an action, no further development has occurred (left and never returned). Noun + きり means 'only / just' with a sense of limitation (just the two of us, only this much).

Expresses a consistent pattern that repeats every time a specific action or event occurs. Often implies an emotional or notable consequence.

Expresses regular intervals or each instance of a set. Compare with たびに — ごとに is more mechanical/regular, while たびに implies an emotional pattern.

Emphasizes that an interruption or event occurred at the worst or most inconvenient moment — right in the middle of something. Stronger sense of interruption than あいだに.

The second action is a secondary, convenient addition to the first. The first action is the main purpose; the second is done opportunistically. Similar to がてら.

Formal equivalent of とき. Common in written notices, signs, instructions, and business contexts. More formal than とき and less personal.

Describes a near-miss — something almost happened but didn't. Always carries a sense of relief. The past tense (だった) is key — it means the event was averted.

Marks an immediate, often surprising consequence that follows directly from an action. The result in B is usually unintended or spontaneous. Stronger sense of immediacy than とすぐ.

Expresses that B could only be understood or achieved after A actually happened. Often used for realizations that come too late or insights gained through experience.

Attaches to verb stems to express that something was just done and is still in that fresh state. 炊き立て (freshly cooked), 焼き立て (freshly baked), 出来立て (just made) are common fixed expressions.

Two uses: 'every time ~ happens, B follows' (single につけ), and 'whether A or B, either way' (repeated いいにつけ悪いにつけ). The repeated form always presents two contrasting conditions.

Marks a point in the past from which a continuous state has continued to the present. Unlike から which can mark both past and future, 以来 always looks backward from now.

Used for significant occasions or milestones. More formal than とき or 際に. に際して is slightly more formal than に当たって and implies a more ceremonial or official context.